2 In fact, it often seems … it works. White, S., Carey, M., O’Donnell, A., & Loeb, S. (2021). Early Lessons from Implementing High-Impact Tutoring at Scale. National Student Support Accelerator and Nickow, A., Oreopoulos, P., & Quan, V. (2020). The Impressive Effects of Tutoring on PreK-12 Learning: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Experimental Evidence. Working Paper 27476. National Bureau of Economic Research.

2 A 1982 meta-analysis. Cohen, P. A., Kulik, J. A., & Kulik, C. L. C. (1982). Educational outcomes of tutoring: A meta-anal- ysis of findings. American educational research journal, 19(2), 237-248.

3 Even older, in fact. Hoppitt, W. J., Brown, G. R., Kendal, R., Rendell, L., Thornton, A., Webster, M. M., & Laland, K. N. (2008). Lessons from animal teaching. Trends in ecology & evolution, 23(9), 486-493.

3 In the sense that they modify their behavior. Caro, T. M., & Hauser, M. D. (1992). Is there teaching in nonhuman animals?. The quarterly review of biology, 67(2), 151-174.

3 According to Kevin Laland. Hoppitt, W. J., Brown, G. R., Kendal, R., Rendell, L., Thornton, A., Webster, M. M., & Laland, K. N. (2008). Lessons from animal teaching. Trends in ecology & evolution, 23(9), 486-493.

4 There is strong evidence for its remarkable effects. Slavin, R. E. (1987). Making Chapter 1 make a difference. The Phi Delta Kappan, 69(2), 110-119 and White, S., Carey, M., O’Donnell, A., & Loeb, S. (2021). Early Lessons from Implementing High- Impact Tutoring at Scale. National Student Support Accelerator.

10 They don’t reliably lead to learning. Wittwer, J., & Renkl, A. (2008). Why instructional explanations often do not work: A framework for understanding the effectiveness of instructional explanations. Educational Psychologist, 43(1), 49-64.

10 Joel Michael and Allen Rovick analyzed transcripts. Cho, B. I., Michael, J. A., Rovick, A. A., & Evens, M. W. (2000, June). An analysis of multiple tutoring protocols. In International Conference on Intelligent Tutoring Systems (pp. 212-221). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

11 A famous paper by education researchers Dan Schwartz and John Bransford. Schwartz, D. L., & Bransford, J. D. (1998). A time for telling. Cognition and instruction, 16(4), 475-5223.

12 She once ran an experiment … stop making long explanations. Chi, M. T., Siler, S. A., Jeong, H., Yamauchi, T., & Hausmann, R. G. (2001). Learning from human tutoring. Cognitive sci- ence, 25(4), 471-533.

15 The explanation must be at the learner’s knowledge level. Nückles, M., Wittwer, J., & Renkl, A. (2005). Information about a layperson's knowledge supports experts in giving effective and efficient online advice to laypersons. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 11(4), 219.

16 Noted over 30 years ago by Paul Vedder. Vedder, P. (1985). Cooperative learning: A study on processes and effects of coop- eration between primary school children (Vol. 1041). Taylor & Francis Group.

19 That paper, one of the most cited in all of cognitive science. Chi, M. T., Bassok, M., Lewis, M. W., Reimann, P., & Glaser, R. (1989). Self-explanations: How students study and use examples in learning to solve problems. Cognitive science, 13(2), 145-182.

20 “Learning from Human Tutoring,” perhaps the most in-depth study of tutoring ever conducted. Chi, M. T., Siler, S. A., Jeong, H., Yamauchi, T., & Hausmann, R. G. (2001). Learning from human tutoring. Cognitive science, 25(4), 471-533.

21 Pumping for more. Graesser, A. C., Person, N. K., & Magliano, J. P. (1995). Collaborative dialogue patterns in naturalistic one- to-one tutoring. Applied cognitive psychology, 9(6), 495-522.

21 Highlighting critical features of the task. Stone, C. A. (1993). What is missing in the metaphor of scaffolding. Contexts for learning: Sociocultural dynamics in children’s development, 169-183.

22 Providing physical props or cue cards. Scardamalia, M., Bereiter, C., & Steinbach, R. (1984). Teachability of reflec- tive processes in written composition. Cognitive science, 8(2), 173-190.

22 Describing the problem in a way that orients the student to the important features. McArthur, D., Stasz, C., & Zmuidzinas, M. (1990). Tutoring techniques in algebra. Cognition and Instruction, 7(3), 197-244.

22 Comparing the current problem with a previously solved problem. McArthur, D., Stasz, C., & Zmuidzinas, M. (1990). Tutoring techniques in algebra. Cognition and Instruction, 7(3), 197-244.

22 Maintaining focus on the goal. Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Child Psychology & Psychiatry & Allied Disciplines.

22 Completing the student’s reasoning step. Graesser, A. C., Person, N. K., & Magliano, J. P. (1995). Collaborative dia- logue patterns in naturalistic one-to-one tutoring. Applied cog- nitive psychology, 9(6), 495-522.

25 Ference Marton and Roger Säljö … noticed. Marton, F., & Säljö, R. (1976). On qualitative differences in learning: I— Outcome and process. British journal of educational psychol- ogy, 46(1), 4-11.

30 The process of a student constructing … has been shown. Chi, M. T., & Wylie, R. (2014). The ICAP framework: Linking cog- nitive engagement to active learning outcomes. Educational psychologist, 49(4), 219-243.

32 When Hattie published the list. Hattie, J., Biggs, J., & Purdie, N. (1996). Effects of learning skills interventions on student learning: A meta-analysis. Review of educational research, 66(2), 99-136.

32 By one estimate, feedback can double a student’s rate of learn- ing. Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007). The power of feed- back. Review of educational research, 77(1), 81-112.

38 Multiple studies have shown that tutors are really not very good at checking for understanding. Putnam, R. T. (1987). Structuring and adjusting content for students: A study of live and simulated tutoring of addition. American educational research journal, 24(1), 13-48 and McArthur, D., Stasz, C., & Zmuidzinas, M. (1990). Tutoring techniques in algebra. Cognition and Instruction, 7(3), 197-244.

46 Kurt VanLehn … writes, rather shockingly. VanLehn, K., Siler, S., Murray, C., Yamauchi, T., & Baggett, W. B. (2003). Why do only some events cause learning during human tutoring?. Cognition and Instruction, 21(3), 209-249.

48 Extrapolating to other situations. Chan, C. K., Burtis, P. J., Scardamalia, M., & Bereiter, C. (1992). Constructive activity in learning from text. American educational research journal, 29(1), 97-118.

48 Coming up with predictions. Palinscar, A. S., & Brown, A. L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension-fostering and comprehension-monitoring activities. Cognition and instruc- tion, 1(2), 117-175.

48 Forming analogies. Chi, M. T., De Leeuw, N., Chiu, M. H., & LaVancher, C. (1994). Eliciting self-explanations improves understanding. Cognitive science, 18(3), 439-477.

50 A 1998 experiment. Schwartz, D. L., & Bransford, J. D. (1998). A time for telling. Cognition and instruction, 16(4), 475-5223.

51 Much better on deep-learning questions. Schwartz, D. L., Chase, C. C., Oppezzo, M. A., & Chin, D. B. (2011). Practicing versus inventing with contrasting cases: The effects of telling first on learning and transfer. Journal of educational psychol- ogy, 103(4), 759.

52 Kapur even showed that the lecture-first approach may be damaging. Kapur, M. (2014). Productive failure in learning math. Cognitive science, 38(5), 1008-1022.

53 Found, perhaps unsurprisingly. Kapur, Manu. “Comparing learning from productive failure and vicarious failure.” Journal of the Learning Sciences 23, no. 4 (2014): 651-677.

53 A 1992 paper by Robert Byork and Richard Schmidt. Schmidt, R. A., & Bjork, R. A. (1992). New conceptualizations of prac- tice: Common principles in three paradigms suggest new con- cepts for training. Psychological science, 3(4), 207-218.

56 “One important form of deep learning,” says D’Mello. D’Mello, S., Lehman, B., Pekrun, R., & Graesser, A. (2014). Confusion can be beneficial for learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 153-170.

57 When researchers tracked tutee emotional states during tutor- ing. Lehman, B., Matthews, M., D’Mello, S., & Person, N. (2008, June). What are you feeling? Investigating student affective states during expert human tutoring sessions. In International conference on intelligent tutoring systems (pp. 50-59). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.

57 Confusion was the only emotion that significantly predicted learning. D’Mello, S., Lehman, B., Pekrun, R., & Graesser, A. (2014). Confusion can be beneficial for learning. Learning and Instruction, 29, 153-170.

61 Malcolm Swan, a virtuoso designer of math problems. Swan, M. (1985). The Language of Functions and Graphs: An examination module for secondary schools. Shell Centre for Mathematical Education.